Objective

Small for gestational age (SGA) preterm infants (PT) are at greatest risk for growth failure. Our objective was to assess the impact of an exclusive human milk diet (HUM) on growth velocities and neonatal morbidities from birth to discharge in a SGA population.

Study design

Multicenter, retrospective cohort study, subgroup analysis of SGA PT comparing a cow’s milk diet (CMD) with HUM diet.

Results

At birth 420 PT were classified as SGA (197 CMD group, 223 HUM group). Demographics and anthropometric measurements were similar. HUM group PT showed improvement in length Z score at discharge (p = 0.024) and reduction in necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) (p = 0.004).

Conclusion

SGA PT fed a HUM diet had significantly decreased incidence of NEC, surgical NEC, and late-onset sepsis. Due to concerns about growth in a HUM diet, it is reassuring SGA infants fed the HUM diet had similar growth to CMD diet with trends toward improvement

Objective

An increasingly common practice is to feed preterm infants a base diet comprising only human milk (HM), usually fortified with a cow's milk (CM)-derived fortifier (CMDF). We evaluated the safety of CMDF in a diet of 100% mother's own milk (MOM) against a HM-derived fortifier (HMDF). To date, this has received little research attention.

Study Design

We reanalyzed a 12-center randomized trial, originally comparing exclusive HM feeding, including MOM, donor milk (DM), and HMDF, versus a CM exposed group fed MOM, preterm formula (PTF), and CMDF1. However, for the current study, we performed a subgroup analysis (n = 114) selecting only infants receiving 100% MOM base diet plus fortification, and fed no DM or PTF. This allowed for an isolated comparison of fortifier type: CMDF versus HMDF to evaluate the primary outcomes: necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) and a severe morbidity index of NEC surgery or death; and several secondary outcomes.

Results

CMDF and HMDF groups had similar baseline characteristics. CMDF was associated with higher risk of NEC; relative risk (RR) 4.2 (p = 0.038), NEC surgery or death (RR 5.1, p = 0.014); and reduced head circumference gain (p = 0.04).

Conclusions

In neonates fed, as currently recommended with a MOM-based diet, the safety of CMDF when compared to HMDF has been little researched. We conclude that available evidence points to an increase in adverse outcomes with CMDF, including NEC and severe morbidity comprising NEC surgery or death.

Objective

Substantial losses of nutrients may occur during tube (gavage) feeding of fortified human milk. Our objective was to compare the losses of key macronutrients and minerals based on method of fortification and gavage feeding method.

Methods

We used clinically available gavage feeding systems and measured pre- and post-feeding (end-point) nutrient content of calcium (Ca), phosphorus (Phos), protein, and fat. Comparisons were made between continuous, gravity bolus, and 30-minute infusion pump feeding systems, as well as human milk fortified with donor human milk-based and bovine milk-based human milk fortifier using an in vitro model.

Results

Feeding method was significantly associated with fat and Ca losses, with increased losses in continuous feeds. Fat losses in continuous feeds were substantial, with 40 ± 3 % of initial fat lost during the feeding process. After correction for feeding method, human milk fortified with donor milk-based fortifier was associated with significantly less loss of Ca (8 ± 4% vs. 28 ± 4%, p< 0.001), Phos (3 ± 4% vs. 24 ± 4%, p < 0.001), and fat (17 ± 2% vs. 25 ± 2%, p = 0.001) than human milk fortified with a bovine milk-based fortifier (Mean ± SEM).

Background:

Survival to hospital discharge remains a critical outcome for premature and very low birthweight infants (VLBW), who often require fortification of human milk to meet nutritional needs within tolerated feeding volumes. Although exclusive human milk diets (EHMD) that include human milk-derived fortifiers have been proposed as an alternative to cow milk-derived fortification or formula supplementation, evidence for their association with improved survival remains inconsistent across studies.

Objective:

To evaluate the association between an EHMD and survival to hospital discharge among premature and low birthweight infants, synthesizing evidence from randomized and non-randomized studies.

Methods:

PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science were searched through July 2025 for studies comparing an EHMD (human milk fortified with human milk-derived fortifier) with diets containing cow milk-derived products. Two reviewers independently screened studies, extracted data, and assessed risk of bias. Pooled odds ratios (OR) were calculated using random-effects meta-analysis, with subgroup analyses by study design.

Results:

Five randomized and 9 non-randomized studies were included, encompassing 4,713 infants born between 2004 and 2021. Mean birthweights ranged from 741 to 1,361 g, and mean gestational ages ranged from 25.5 to 29.7 weeks. In pooled analyses, EHMD was associated with lower odds of death before discharge (pooled OR 0.80, 95% CI 0.65–0.98; I2 = 0%, tau2 = 0.00, p = 0.03). Directionally similar associations were observed in randomized (OR 0.62, 95% CI 0.28–1.38) and non-randomized studies (OR 0.82, 95% CI 0.66–1.03), although no significant differences emerged within either subgroup. In the two randomized trials directly comparing human milk-derived and cow milk-derived fortifiers, mortality estimates were directionally similar but no significant difference was observed between groups.

Conclusion:

EHMD was associated with lower odds of death before discharge in pooled analyses. Although no significant differences emerged in the subgroup analyses, the consistency in effect direction across study designs supports the possibility of a clinically meaningful association. Adequately powered randomized and pragmatic trials are needed to confirm this association.

Objective

To determine safety and efficacy of exclusive human milk diet (EHMD) for very low birth weight (VLBW, <1500 g) infants.

Design

Prospective, controlled, open trial of VLBW infants randomized to EHMD (mother’s own milk [MOM]/donor milk [DM] with human milk-based fortifiers) or Standard Diet (MOM/DM with cow milk-based fortifier/formula). Outcomes included superiority of weight gain velocity from birth to 34 weeks gestational age, time to full feeds, and safety.

Result

In total, 147 infants received EHMD (n = 77) or Standard Diet (n = 70). The EHMD group had superior mean weight gain velocity versus the Standard Diet (13.44 vs 11.96 g/kg/day, p = 0.006) and earlier mean time to full feeds (20.0 vs 25.9 days, p = 0.03); adverse events were not significantly different (32.5% vs 21.4%, p = 0.13).

Conclusion

EHMD is viable for management of VLBW infants, providing improved growth without reduced safety.

Trial Registration and ID

Japan Registry of Clinical Trials: jRCT2031210384

Background: Necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) remains a leading cause of morbidity and mortality in very low birthweight (VLBW) infants. Human milk feeding and standardized feeding protocols are protective, but clinical practice varies, particularly in fortifier choice. Whether human milk-derived fortifiers reduce NEC risk compared with cow milk-derived fortifiers remains unclear.

Methods: We conducted a systematic state-of-evidence review and meta-analysis, searching PubMed, Web of Science, and Scopus through July 2025. Eligible studies included RCTs and observational cohorts of VLBW infants comparing an exclusive human milk diet (EHMD) including human milk-derived fortifiers to cow milk-derived diets. Two reviewers independently screened and extracted data. Both RCTs and observational studies were included to evaluate consistency of effect estimates across designs and to account for heterogeneity in control group feeding practices. Pooled odds ratios (ORs) with 95% CIs were calculated using a Sidik–Jonkman random-effects model. Sensitivity analyses by study design and exclusion of infant formula from controls were performed.

Results: Twenty studies (five RCTs, 15 observational; n = 6794 infants) met inclusion criteria, most enrolling infants born ≤1250 g. Compared with cow milk-containing diets, EHMD was associated with lower odds of Bell Stage ≥ 2 NEC (OR: 0.59; 95% CI: 0.42, 0.81; p < 0.001; n = 4625) and surgical NEC (OR: 0.43; 95% CI: 0.32, 0.58; p < 0.0001; n = 4754). In direct comparisons of fortifier type with a base diet of human milk, estimates suggested lower odds of Bell Stage ≥ 2 NEC by 35% (OR: 0.65; 95% CI: 0.44, 0.97; p = 0.03, n = 2102) and surgical NEC by 49% (OR: 0.51; 95% CI: 0.26, 0.98; p = 0.04; n = 1659) with human milk-derived fortifiers. Effect estimates were generally consistent across study designs, although precision and statistical significance varied.

Conclusions: EHMD with human milk-derived fortifiers was associated with lower odds of medical and surgical NEC in VLBW infants, with most evidence from infants born ≤1250 g, reflecting current clinical use in the highest-risk population. Although the number and sample sizes of RCTs remain limited, the consistency of effect estimates across both RCTs and observational studies, together with significance of pooled analyses, strengthens confidence in these findings. Pragmatic and registry-based studies using standardized fortification protocols may provide the most efficient pathway to strengthen the evidence base.

Objectives: To evaluate the association between an exclusive human milk diet (EHMD) and motor function impairment at three years of corrected age among infants born before 32 weeks of gestation.

Methods: We conducted a retrospective study between 2018 and 2021. We assigned to the EHMD group infants who received an EHMD for ≥75% of the days between the first day of diet fortification and 33 6/7 weeks postmenstrual age. We used inverse propensity scores to balance potential confounders and developed a mixed-effects logistic regression model to assess the association.

Results: After adjusting for demographics and morbidities, an EHMD was associated with a reduced risk of motor function impairment, with an odds ratio of 0.74 (95% CI: 0.56-0.98, p = 0.036).

Conclusions: An EHMD is associated with a decrease in the odds of early childhood motor function impairment among infants born before 32 weeks of gestation.

Background

Preterm neonates ≤1000g have high nutrient demands and faltering growth is common, demonstrated by declines in z-scores for weight, length, and head circumference (HC) during their initial hospital stay.

In October 2023, a standardised nutrition bundle was introduced in our NICU which included enhancement of NICU dietitian hours, employment of nutrition allied health assistants, standardised enteral feeding protocol and introduction of exclusive human milk diet (EHMD) for neonates≤1000g with an aim to improve growth outcomes.EHMD consisted of human milk fortified with human milk derived fortifier (Humavant, Prolacta Bioscience) until 34 weeks corrected gestational age.

Methods

Prospective cohort study with historical controls of inborn infants ≤1000g. Primary outcome was change in anthropometric z-scores from birth to 36 weeks corrected gestational age (CGA). Mean (SD) are shown.

Results

• The baseline characteristics of both groups were similar.
• EHMD group demonstrated a smaller decline in weight and HC z-scores from birth to 36 weeks CGA (Table 1).
• EHMD group also achieved:
  • earlier commencement of fortification [10.4 (5.7) vs 20.8 (11.2) days, p<0.01]
  • earlier attainment of enteral feeds of 150 mL/kg/day [12.7 (5.6) vs 20.2 (10.4) days, p<0.01]
  • reduced duration of parenteral nutrition [12.8 (5.8) vs 20.3 (11.2) p<0.05].

Background

In October 2023, a standardised nutrition quality improvement bundle was implemented, which included:

1. Exclusive human milk diet (EHMD) for preterm infants ≤1000g. Enhancement of NICU dietitian hours
2. Nutrition allied health assistants to assist with accurate weighing and labelling of fortifiers and preparation of feeds
3. Standardised enteral feeding protocol for all infants.

EHMD consisted of mother's own milk (MOM) or pasteurised donor human milk (PDHM) fortified with human milk derived fortifier (Humavant, Prolacta Bioscience) from birth until 34 weeks corrected gestational age (CGA).

Methods

• This is a prospective cohort study with historical controls prior to the introduction ofthe nutritional bundle. Historical controls received cow's milk based fortifier.
• The growth trajectory in the first 6 weeks of life was compared between inborn infants ≤1000g born after October 2023 (intervention group) and those born between January and June 2023 (historical controls).
• Weights and head circumference was measured weekly for all neonates.
• Mean (SD) values of weight and head circumference (HC) were compared at weekly intervals from birth (i.e birth, day 7, 14, 21, 28, 35, and 42)

Results

• There were 21 and 18 neonates in EHMD and control groups, respectively.
• In EHMD group, all neonates survived and there were no occurrence of necrotising enterocolitis (NEC). In the control group, there were 2 (11%) deaths due to late onset sepsis, and 2 (11%) proven NEC.
• Mean weights at all time points were higher in the EHMD group compared to the control (Figure 1)
• Mean head circumference was higher from day of life 21 to day of life 42 in the EHMD group compared to the control (Figure 2)
• Mean weight (±SD)in EHMD increased by 620 (±222) g by day 42 compared to the control group 469 (±154)g (p 0.017)
• Mean HC (±SD) in EHMD increased by 3.54 (±2.57) cm by day 42 compared to the control group 2.46 (±1.26) cm (p 0.11)

Background

In October 2023, we introduced a standardised nutrition bundle that included implementation of exclusive human milk diet (EHMD, mother’s milk ± donor milk and a human milk-based fortifier, Humavant [Prolacta Bioscience]) for extremely low birth weight infants (ELBW) <1000g at birth until 34 weeks corrected gestational age (CGA). In this interim analysis, we compared weight z-score changes from birth to 34 weeks CGA pre and post-implementation of EHMD.

Methods

Post-implementation phase consisted of all inborn ELBW infants born between October 2023 to March 2024. Pre-implementation phase was from January to June 2023. Decline in weight-for-age z-score from birth to 34 weeks CGA was used to define malnutrition: mild (0.8-1.2 SD), moderate (>1.2-2.0 SD), and severe (>2.0 SD).

Results

At 34 weeks corrected gestational age (CGA), the incidence of malnutrition was significantly lower in the study group, decreasing from 88% in the control group to 39%. The study group also demonstrated a notable reduction in the severity of malnutrition. Moreover, there were no reported cases of necrotising enterocolitis (NEC) in the study group, in contrast to an 11% incidence observed in the control group.

Necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) is common in preterm infants, especially infants less than 32 weeks gestation. Mortality from NEC is 7% and occurs in 1 out of 1000 preterm infants. Studies have shown the efficacy of an exclusive milk from mother diet in decreasing rates of NEC and associated mortality.

Purpose: 

To evaluate the effectiveness of an existing exclusive human milk diet (EHMD) protocol on the incidence of NEC in extremely premature infants. EHMD, for the purposes of this project is defined as breast milk of mother, with or without human milk-based fortifier.

Methods: 

A single-center retrospective quasi-experimental study. The sample included 201 infants born less than 32 weeks gestation, weighing less than 1250 grams, small for gestational age (SGA) and with low Apgar scores. Outcomes measured included incidences of NEC, mortality, and co-morbidities in infants pre- and postinitiation of an EHMD protocol.

Results: 

Just 4.8% of the EHMD group had a NEC diagnosis compared to 10.5% of the bovine-based (BOV) group. There was a 1% mortality rate of the EHMD group as compared to 6% in the BOV group. The EHMD group had a statistically significant greater weight gain during hospitalization as compared to infants fed BOV (P = < .05).

Human milk provides bioactive compounds such as milk fat globules (MFGs), which promote brain development, modulate the immune system, and hold antimicrobial properties. To ensure microbiological safety, donor milk banks apply heat treatments. This study compares the effects of heat treatments and homogenization on MFG's physicochemical properties, bioactivity, and bioavailability. Vat pasteurization (Vat-PT), retort (RTR), and ultra-high temperature (UHT) were performed with or without homogenization. UHT, RTR, and homogenization increased the colloidal dispersion of globules, as indicated by increased zeta potential. The RTR treatment completely inactivated xanthine oxidase activity (a marker of MFG bioactivity), whereas UHT reduced its activity by 93%. Interestingly, Vat-PT resulted in less damage, with 28% activity retention. Sialic acid, an important compound for brain health, was unaffected by processing. Importantly, homogenization increased the in vitro lipolysis of MFG, suggesting that this treatment could increase the digestibility of MFG. In terms of color, homogenization led to higher L* values, indicating increased whiteness due to finer dispersion of the fat and casein micelles (and thus greater light scattering), whereas UHT and RTR increased b* values associated with Maillard reactions. This study highlights the nuanced effects of processing conditions on MFG properties, emphasizing the retention of native characteristics in Vat-PT-treated human milk.

Conclusion: This study elucidates the intricate influence of processing conditions on the properties of MFG. The Vat-PT method notably preserves most of the native characteristics observed in unprocessed human milk MFG. Regarding the lipolysis characteristics, homogenization increased the in vitro lipolysis of MFG, suggesting that this treatment could increase the digestibility of MFG. The findings from the present study provide an increased understanding of processing techniques’ effects on milk fat globules and milk fat globule membranes, which could be translated into clinical human milk research for alternative human milk processing techniques and their impact on infant health.

An exclusive human milk diet (EHMD) and standardized feeding protocols are two critical methods for safely feeding very low birth weight (VLBW) infants. Our institution initiated a standardized feeding protocol for all VLBW infants in 2018. In this protocol, a human milk fat modular was used only reactively when an infant had poor weight gain, fluid restriction, or hypoglycemia. As part of our NICU quality improvement program, internal utilization review data revealed a potential opportunity to improve growth and reduce costs. While maintaining the EHMD, a simple feeding guideline process change could provide cost savings without sacrificing caloric density or growth. We examined this process change in pre-post cohorts of VLBW infants.

Methods: Our revised feeding protocol, established in October 2021, called for a human milk fat modular (Prolact CR) to be added to all infant feeding when parenteral nutrition (PN) and lipids were discontinued. The human milk fat modular concentration is 4 mL per 100 mL feed, providing approximately an additional 2 kcal/oz. We tracked data to compare (1) the use of the human milk fat modular, (2) the use of the human milk +8 fortifier, (3) overall growth before and after feeding protocol changes, and (4) cost differences between protocols. Results: Thirty-six VLBW infants were followed prospectively upon the introduction of the revised feeding protocol. In the revised era, the need for human milk +8 fortifier decreased from 43% to 14%. The decrease in the cost of a more costly fortifier provided a cost savings of USD 2967.78 on average per infant. Overall growth improved from birth to discharge, with severe malnutrition declining from 3.3% to 2.7% and moderate malnutrition declining from 37% to 8%.

Conclusions: With the proactive use of a human milk fat modular in a standardized feeding protocol, our VLBW infants showed improved growth, lower malnutrition rates, and decreased use of higher caloric fortifiers.